Comparative Review of Peptide Groups

Weight Regulating Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
AOD 9604 May stimulate pituitary gland to support metabolic function
  • No perceived impact on lean muscle mass
  • No perceived impact on food intake
  • Potential cell regeneration properties
Mark Heffernan et al, Endocrinology, Volume 142, Issue 12, 1 December 2001, https://doi.org/10.1210/endo.142.12.8522

Frank M. Ng, J Sun et.al, Hormone Research, February 2000, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=AOD%209604

Adipotide (FTPP) May cause disruption of adipocytes (fat forming cells)
  • Potential increase in insulin resistance
Barnhart, Kirstin F et al. Science translational medicine vol. 3,108 (2011): 108ra112. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22072637/

Kolonin, Mikhail G et al. Nature medicine vol. 10,6 (2004): 625-32. doi:10.1038/nm1048. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15133506/

Tesamorelin May activate GHRH receptors in pituitary gland to support increased GH and IGF-1 production https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/tesamorelin-subcutaneous-route/description/drg-20074632

 

Growth Hormone Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Ipamorelin May trigger pituitary gland to secrete growth hormone
  • Potential anti-aging action
  • Potentially increased collagen production
  • Potential for sleep cycle regulation
David E. Beck et al., International Journal of Colorectal Disease, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00384-014-2030-8

P.B Johansen et al, April 1999, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10373343/

Gobburu, J.V.S., Agersø, H., Jusko, W.J. et al. Pharm Res 16, 1412–1416 (1999) https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018955126402

Rogério G. Gondo et al, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Volume 86, Issue 7, 1 July 2001, Pages 3279–3283, https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.86.7.7694

Sermorelin May trigger pituitary gland to secrete growth hormone
  • Potential anti-aging action
  • May increase energy output
  • May encourage muscle cell development
Koutkia, Polyxeni et al. JAMA vol. 292,2 (2004): 210-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249570/

Vitiello, Michael V et al. Neurobiology of aging vol. 27,2 (2006): 318-23. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16399214/

Fragment 176-191 May trigger pituitary gland to secrete growth hormone
  • May support metabolic function
  • May reduce insulin sensitivity
  • May hasten tissue repair
G.Y.W. Ma et al, Volume 716, Issue 3, 1982, Pages 400-409, ISSN 0304-4165 https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4165(82)90033-2

Zhou, Deng-Rong et al. Medicine vol. 100, 5 (2021): e23984. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7870157/

Clinical info drug database. https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/drugs/somatropin/patient

GHRP-2 May trigger pituitary gland, cAMP pathway, and calcium channels
  • May mitigate joint degredation
  • Potential for sleep cycle regulation
  • May encourage muscle cell development
Laferrère, Blandine et al. (2005): 611-4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824650/

Furuta S, Shimada O, Doi N, Ukai K, Nakagawa T, Watanabe J, 2004;54(12):868-80. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15646371/

Emanuela Arvat, et al, Peptides, Volume 18, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 885-891, ISSN 0196-9781, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-9781(97)00016-8

Hexarelin May trigger pituitary gland to secrete growth hormone
  • Potentially weight regulating
  • May hasten tissue repair
Bellone J et al, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9801989/

Giustina A, et al, Regul Pept. 1997 May 14;70(1):49-54. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9250581/

Rahim A, et al, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1998 Nov;49(5):659-64. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10197083/

GHRP-6 Potential to bind with GHS-R1a and CD36 receptors to stimulate growth hormone release and reduce apostasis
  • Potentiallly mitigates hypothyroidism
  • May increase energy output
Pimentel-Filho FR, et al, 1997 Mar;46(3):295-300. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9156038/

Frieboes RM, et al, . Neuroendocrinology. 1995 May;61(5):584-9. https://doi.org/10.1159/000126883

Cibrián D, et al, Clin Sci (Lond). 2006 May;110(5):563-73. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16417467/

CJC 1295 No DAC Potential to bind with albumin and stimulate growth hormone secretion
  • Potentially weight regulating
  • May increase insulin sensitivity
Valcavi R, et al, Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1986 Jun;24(6):693-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3098458/

Ito T, Igarashi H, et al. Peptides. 2001 Jul;22(7):1139-51. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11445245/

Teichman SL, et al, J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Mar;91(3):799-805. doi: 10.1210/jc.2005-1536. Epub 2005 Dec 13. PMID: 16352683. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16352683/

IGF-1 LR3 Potential to bind with IGF-1 receptors
  • Potentially weight regulating
  • May support metabolic function
  • May promote bone density
Anderson, et al. Molecular and cellular endocrinology, 464, 65–74. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723243/

Naisi Li et al, Volume 157, Issue 1, 1 January 2016, Pages 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2015-1546

William E. Sonntag, et al, The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, Volume 67A, Issue 6, June 2012, Pages 587–598, https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/gls115

PEG MGF Potential to induce cell proliferation and growth
  • Potentially neuroprotective
  • Potentially cardioprotective
  • May hasten tissue repair
Doroudian G et al, Biomed Microdevices. 2014 Oct;16(5):705-15. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24908137/

Deng M, et al, Int Orthop. 2011 Jul;35(7):1099-106. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21057789/

Alec Walker.  20 Jul 2017. https://blogs.biomedcentral.com/on-biology/2017/07/20/hearts-minds-mice-men-mechano-growth-factor-new-tool-battle-age-related-neuron-loss/

MGF Potential to induce cell proliferation and growth
  • Potentially neuroprotective
  • Potentially cardioprotective
  • May hasten tissue repair
Kandalla PK, et al. Mech Ageing Dev. 2011 Apr. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21354439/

Liu X, et al,  Front Physiol. 2019 May 17;10:601. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31164836/

Dluzniewska J, et al, FASEB J. 2005 Nov;19(13):1896-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16144956/

IGF-1 DES May stimulate excitatory synaptic transmission and cell growth
  • May support cognitive function in autism
  • May support memory recall
Anderson, Lindsey J et al. Molecular and cellular endocrinology vol. 464 (2018): 65-74. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5723243/

Autism Spectrum Disorder. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352928

Ramsey MM, et al. 2005 Jul;94(1):247-54. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15985695/

 

Tissue Repair Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
TB-500 May increase production of actin protein
  • Potential increase in hair follicle growth
Gao, Xy.,et al,  Mol Genet Genomics 291, 1639–1646 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00438-016-1207-y
BPC-157 Potential to bind with growth hormone receptors and stimulate cell proliferation
  • May regulate gut microbiome
  • May support tendon, bone, ligament repair
Chang, Chung-Hsun et al. Journal of applied physiology vol. 110,3 (2011): 774-80. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00945.2010. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21030672/

Seiwerth, Sven et al. Current pharmaceutical design vol. 24,18 (2018): 1972-1989. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29998800/

Inflammo-pharmacology vol. 7,1 (1999): 1-14. doi:10.1007/s10787-999-0022-z. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17657443/

GHK-Cu May impact gene expression
  • Potential anti-aging action
  • Potential increase in hair follicle growth
  • May reduce stress hormone secretion
Pickart, et al,  International journal of molecular sciences vol. 19,7 1987. 7 Jul. 2018,  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6073405/

Bobyntsev II, et al, Bull Exp Biol Med. 2015 Apr;158(6):726-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25900608/

Sever’yanova LА, Bull Exp Biol Med. 2017 Dec;164(2):140-143. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29181666/

ARA-290 Potential to inhibit TRPV1 channel, and impact pain perception
  • Potential tissue protectant
  • May induce blood vessel dilation
Watanabe M, et al, Mar;100(3):554-62. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26683514/

Peng, B., Kong, G., Yang, C. et al. Cell Death Dis 11, 79 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-020-2276-8

Dahan, A., et al, Molecular medicine (Cambridge, Mass.), 19(1), 334–345. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3883966/

 

Skin Pigmenting Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Melanotan I Potential to bind with melanocortin receptors & induce melanin production
  • Potentiallly mitigates erythropoietic protoporphyria
Drug Trials  https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-approvals-and-databases/drug-trials-snapshots-scenesse
Melanotan II Potential to bind with five melanocortin receptors & induce melanin production
  • Potentiallly mitigates erectile dysfunction
Melanotan, Vitamin and Supplements. https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-884/melanotan

Wessells, H et al. International journal of impotence research vol. 12 Suppl 4 (2000): S74-9. doi:10.1038/sj.ijir.3900582. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11035391/

Peters B, et al. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31953620/

Melanotan II overdose associated with priapism. Clinical Toxicology 51:4, pages 383-383. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/15563650.2012.740637

 

Anti-aging Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Epitalon May decrease MM-9 synthesis, inducing cell proliferation
  • May increase melanin production
  • Potentially geroprotective
Korkushko OV, et al. Normalizing effect of the pineal gland peptides on the daily melatonin rhythm in old monkeys and elderly people. Adv Gerontol. 2007;20(1):74-85. Russian

Khavinson VKh, Morozov VG. Adv Gerontol. 2002;10:74-84. Russian. PMID: 12577695. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12577695/

FOXO4-DRI May prevent binding of tissue cell with p53 protein to mitigate cell aging and death
  • Potential to mitigate cardiac damage
Anne-Laure Bulteau, et al, Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Volume 397, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 298-304, https://doi.org/10.1006/abbi.2001.2663

Wei Hu,et al Progress in Neurobiology, Volume 181, 2019, 101645, ISSN 0301-0082, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.101645

NAD+ May act as coenzyme with SIRTs and stimulate stem cell regeneration
  • May reduce stress hormone secretion
  • Potential for sleep cycle regulation
  • May support metabolic function
Wang S, et al, Stroke. 2008 Sep;39(9):2587-95. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18617666/

Mehmel, Mario et al. Nutrients vol. 12,6 1616. 31 May. 2020, doi:10.3390/nu12061616 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7352172/

 

Reproductive Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Female reproductive impacts
Bremelanotide Potential to binds with MC3R and MC4R receptors & stimulate central nervous system Drugs and Supplements, Bremelanotide (subcutaneous route). https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/bremelanotide-subcutaneous-route/description/drg-20466805

Pfaus J, et al, J Sex Med. 2007 Nov;4 Suppl 4:269-79. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17958619/

Oxytocin Potential to bind with GCPR, inducing calcium secretion and uterine contractions
  • May support breastfeeding function
  • Potential antidiuretic
  • May induce blood vessel dilation
Osilla EV, Sharma S. Oxytocin. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507848/

Gomes M, J Obstet Gynaecol. 2018 Aug;38(6):745-749. Epub 2018 Mar 9. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29523035/

Rabow, S., Hjorth, U., Schönbeck, S. et al. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 18, 453 (2018).  https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-018-2029-1

GnRH Peptides (Fertility Support)
Kisspeptin Potential to bind with GPR54 receptors and stimulate GnRH release
  • Potential to mitigate subfertility
  • May regulate reproductive hormone production
Prague JK, et al, Neuroendocrinology. 2015;102(3):238-45. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26277870/

Tng E. L. (2015). Singapore medical journal, 56(12), 649–656. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4678402/

d’Anglemont de Tassigny X, et al, Mechanistic insights into the more potent effect of KP-54 compared to KP-10 in vivo. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28464043/

Triptorelin Potential to bind to pituitary gland receptors, to stimulate release of LH and FSH
  • Potential mitigator of prostate cancer cells
  • May impact fertility via reporductive hormone regulation
  • May regulate reproductive hormone production
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/prostate-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20353087

Endometriosis Health Center. https://www.webmd.com/women/endometriosis/default.htm

Klein K, et al. Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2016 Nov 1;29(11):1241-1248. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26887034/

LiverTox: Clinical and Research National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2012-. Triptorelin. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK548756/

Gonadorelin Potential to bind to pituitary gland receptors, to stimulate release of LH and FSH
  • Potential mitigator of prostate cancer cells
  • May regulate ovulation cycles
  • Potential mitigator of breast cancer cells
https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/gonadorelin-intravenous-route-injection-route/description/drg-20067426

Spicer DV, Pike MC.  J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1994;(16):139-47. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7999456/

Zerbib M. GnRH analogs and prostate cancer treatment. Ann Urol (Paris). 2005 Oct;39 Suppl 3:S66-72. French. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16302714/

 

Immunity Peptides 
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Thymosin Alpha-1 Potentially induce T-cell differentiation and macrophage production
  • Potentially mitigates melanoma and hepatitis
  • Potentially mitigates HIV impacts
Dominari A, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7747025/

Chadwick D, et al. Clin Exp Immunol. 2003 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1808897/

Zadaxin (Thymalfasin): Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Interactions, Warning [Internet]. RxList. 2009. Available from: https://www.rxlist.com/zadaxin-drug.htm#description

Thymalin Potentially induce T-cell differentiation and macrophage production
  • Potentially mitigates COPD (respiratory disorder)
  • Potentially mitigates goiter
  • Potential anti-aging action
Anisimov VN, et al, Biogerontology. 2000;1(1):55-9. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11707921/

Iangolenko VV. Ter Arkh. 1991;63(10):60-3. Russian. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1725225/

Thymus extract, side effects. https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-1009/thymus-extract

LL-37 Potentially antimicrobial
  • May induce angiogenesis (wound repair)
Ramos R, et al. Peptides. 2011 Jul;32(7):1469-76. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21693141/
Follistatin-344 Potentially binds with activin to inhibit FSH secretion
  • Potential increase in hair follicle growth
  • Potentially mitigates congenital blindness
  • May mitigate insulin deficiency
Ooe H, et al. J Cell Physiol. 2012 Jun;227(6):2363-70https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21826650/

Zimber MP, et al,  J Drugs Dermatol. 2011 Nov; 10(11):1308-12 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22052313/

Van der Poel HG, et al, Urol Res. 2003 Feb;30(6):380-6. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12599018/

Humanin Potentially binds with Bax protein to prevent cell death
  • Potentially weight regulating
  • May increase cell longevity
  • Potentially protective of colon lining
Changhan Lee et al, Published 18 July 2014, Vol 13 Issue 5. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acel.12243

Zhenwei Gong et al, https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpendo.00043.2015

Emma Eriksson, JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Volume 106, Issue 3, March 2014, djt459, https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djt459

 

Nootropic Peptides
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Semax Potentially inhibits selected enzymes to modulate gene expression
  • Potentially neuroprotective
  • Potentially cardioprotective
  • May reduce stress hormone secretion
Nataliya Yu. et al, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npep.2020.102114

Volodina MA et al, Bull Exp Biol Med. 2012 Mar;152(5):560-3. English, Russian. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22803132/

PMID: 11517472. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11517472/

Selank Potentially stimulates GABAergic system and gene expression
  • Potential to support immunological function
  • Potentially weight regulating
  • May reduce stress hormone secretion
Medvedev VE, et al, 2014;114(7):17-22. Russian. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25176261/

Uchakina ON, et al, Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2008;108(5):71-5. Russian. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18577961/

N.F. Mjasoedov et al, The Influence of Selank on the Parameters of the Hemostasis System, Lipid Profile, and Blood Sugar Level in the Course of Experimental Metabolic Syndrome. April 14, 2014.

 

Peptides Affecting Nervous/Muscle Systems
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
Pinealon May impact the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway
  • Potential anti-aging action
Meshchaninov VN, et al,. Adv Gerontol. 2015;28(1):62-7. Russian. PMID: 26390612. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26390612/
Thyrotropin Potentially binds with TRH-1 and TRH-2 receptors to modify gene expression
  • Potential diagnotistic in pituitary and hypothalamus gland impairment
Sternbach HA, et al, JAMA. 1983 Mar 25. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6402617/

Borowski GD, et al,  J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984 Jan;58(1):197-200https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6417153/

ACE-031 Potentially binds with myostatin to promote muscle cell production
  • May support metabolic function
Morvan F, et al, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017 Nov 21;114(47):12448-12453. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29109273/

Relizani K, et al, Mol Ther. 2014 Aug;22(8):1423-1433. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24861054/

Béchir N, et al, FASEB J. 2016 Oct;30(10):3551-3562. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27416839/

 

Multifaceted
Peptide Mechanism of action Additional research hypotheses References
VIP May bind to diverse receptors, to induce various downstream impacts
  • Potentially mitigate cardiovascular disorders
  • May support metabolic function
Gonzalez-Rey E, et al 2005 Nov;6(11):1116-23. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16312132/

Kingsbury MA et al, 2015 Dec 1;6:139-147. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26858968/

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